The Treatment of Concubines in Ancient China

Historical Development#

Early Dynasties: Concubinage can be traced back to the Shang Dynasty (1600 - 1046 BC). At that time, it was mainly a practice among the nobility. Concubines were often used as a means to expand the family line and form political alliances.
Han Dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD): The practice became more widespread. With the growth of the imperial court and the emerging gentry class, concubines were kept not only for reproductive purposes but also for entertainment and to show social status.
Tang Dynasty (618 - 907 AD): Considered a golden age in Chinese history, concubinage was highly regulated. The court had specific rules regarding the number of concubines a man of different social ranks could have.
Ming (1368 - 1644 AD) and Qing (1644 - 1912 AD) Dynasties: Concubinage was deeply ingrained in society. In the Qing Dynasty, it was common among wealthy merchants and the landed gentry, and the status and treatment of concubines were clearly defined by strict social norms.

Concubines occupied a lower position in the family hierarchy compared to the wife. The wife was the legal and primary female in the household, with more rights and respect.
Their children, especially sons, had different inheritance rights. Sons of the wife usually had a higher claim to family property and titles.

There were laws regulating the number of concubines a man could have based on his social rank. For example, emperors could have a large number of concubines, while commoners were restricted.
Laws also governed the rights and obligations of concubines, such as their behavior within the household and their status in case of the husband's death.

Confucianism played a major role. It emphasized the importance of the family and proper social roles. Concubines were expected to follow strict moral and behavioral codes, which included loyalty to the husband and deference to the wife.

Emperor Gaozong of Tang: His decision to promote Wu Zetian from a concubine to the empress was a significant turning point. It challenged traditional gender and social norms as Wu Zetian went on to become one of the most powerful rulers in Chinese history.
The decline of the Qing Dynasty: As the dynasty weakened, the institution of concubinage also faced challenges. The changing social and political landscape led to a gradual decline in the practice.

In ancient Rome, concubinage also existed. However, Roman concubines had more legal rights in some cases. For example, they could have some control over their own property, which was not always the case for Chinese concubines.
In the Islamic world, the practice of having multiple wives and concubines was regulated by Islamic law. The treatment of concubines was based on religious teachings, which differed from the Confucian - based norms in China.

Family Structure: The practice of concubinage influenced family structures in China for centuries. It led to complex family relationships and power struggles within households.
Gender Inequality: It was a clear example of gender inequality in Chinese history. Women, especially concubines, had limited rights and were often at the mercy of male - dominated social structures.
Modern Society: Although concubinage is no longer legal in modern China, the historical legacy still has an impact on how people view gender roles and family values.

Readers interested in going deeper could explore the literature of ancient China. Works like "Dream of the Red Chamber" offer detailed insights into the lives of concubines and the complex family dynamics of the time.
Academic research on gender history in China can provide more in - depth analysis of the legal, social, and cultural aspects of concubinage.

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. The Inner Quarters: Marriage and the Lives of Chinese Women in the Sung Period. University of California Press, 1993.
Watson, Rubie S., and Patricia Buckley Ebrey, eds. Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society. University of California Press, 1991.